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Improving Navigation Continuity Using Parallel Cascade Identification By Umar Iqbal, Jacques Georgy, Michael J. Korenberg, and Aboelmagd Noureldin To reliably navigate with fewer than four satellites, GPS pseudoranges needs to be augmented with measurements from other sensors, such as a reduced inertial sensor system or RISS. What is the best way to combine the RISS measurements with the GPS measurements? The classic approach is to integrate the measurements in a conventional tightly coupled Kalman filter. But in this month’s column, we look at how a mathematical procedure called parallel case identification can improve the Kalman filter’s job, when navigating with three, two, one, or even no GPS satellites. INNOVATION INSIGHTS by Richard Langley THREE, TWO, ONE, ZERO! Can you still navigate with just a GPS receiver when the number of tracked GPS satellites drops from four to none? As we know, pseu- doranges from a minimum of four satellites, preferably well spaced out in the sky, are required for three-dimensional positioning. That’s because there are four unknowns to estimate: the three position coordinates (latitude, longitude, and height) and the offset of the receiver clock from GPS System Time. If we had a stable clock in the receiver, then we could hold the clock offset constant and have 3D navigation with just three satellites. But for every 3 nanoseconds of clock drift, we will have about 1 meter of pseudorange error, which will lead to several meters of position error depend- ing on the receiver-satellite geometry. On the other hand, we could hold the height coor- dinate constant (viable for navigation over slowly changing topography or at sea) and estimate the horizontal coordinates and the receiver clock offset. So far, so good. What if the number of tracked satellites then drops to two? We can now only esti- mate two unknowns. They could be the two horizontal coordinates, if we hold both the receiver clock offset and the height fixed. Any errors in those fixed values will propagate into the estimated horizontal coordinates but the resulting position errors might still be acceptable. Instead of holding the clock offset fixed, we could assume a constant heading and compute the position along the assumed trajectory. However, navigation will rapidly deteriorate as soon as we make the first turn. And one satellite? We would have to make assumptions about the vehicle trajectory, the height, and the clock offset, with likely very poor results. And with no satellites? We might be able to navigate over a short period of time by “dead reckoning,” assuming a constant trajectory and speed, but the resulting positions will be educated guesses at best. Clearly, if we want to reliably navigate with fewer than four satellites we need to augment the GPS pseudoranges with measurements from some other sensors. A common approach is to use inertial measurement units or IMUs. A complete IMU consists of three accelerometers and three gyroscopes, and small, cost-effective microelectromechanical IMUs are readily available. For land navigation, however, it can be advantageous to use a reduced inertial sensor system or RISS, consisting of one single-axis gyroscope, two accelerometers, and the vehicle speedometer. We can also make use of GPS pseudorange rates along with the pseudoranges. But what is the best way to combine the RISS measurements with the GPS measurements? The classic approach is to integrate the measurements in a conventional tightly coupled Kalman filter. But in this month’s column, we look at how a mathematical procedure called parallel cascade identification can improve the Kalman filter’s job, when navigating with three, two, or even one GPS satellite. The Global Positioning System meets the requirements for numerous navigational applications when there is direct line-of-sight (LOS) to four or more GPS satellites. Vehicular navigation systems and personal positioning systems may suffer from satellite signal blockage as LOS to at least four satellites may not be readily available when operating in urban landscapes with high buildings, underpasses, and tunnels, or in the countryside with thick forested areas. In such environments, a typical GPS receiver will have difficulties attaining and maintaining signal tracking, which causes GPS outages resulting in degraded or non-existent positioning information. Due to these well-known limitations of GPS, multi-sensor system integration is often employed. By integrating GPS with complementary motion sensors, a solution can be obtained that is often more accurate than that of GPS alone. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) inertial sensors have enabled production of lower-cost and smaller-size inertial measurement units (IMUs) with little power consumption. A complete IMU is composed of three accelerometers and three gyroscopes. These MEMS sensors have composite error characteristics that are stochastic in nature and difficult to model. In traditional low-cost MEMS-based IMU/GPS integration, a few minutes of degraded GPS signals can cause position errors, which can reach several hundred meters. For full 3D land vehicle navigation, we had earlier proposed a low-cost MEMS-based reduced inertial sensor system (RISS) based on only one single-axis gyroscope, two accelerometers, and the vehicle odometer, and we have integrated this system with GPS. RISS mitigates several error sources in the full-IMU solution; moreover, RISS reduces system cost further due to the use of fewer sensors. Another enhancement can be achieved by using tightly coupled integration, which can provide GPS aiding for a navigation solution when the number of visible satellites is three or lower, removing the foremost requirement of loosely coupled integration, which is visibility of at least four satellites. GPS aiding during limited GPS satellite availability can improve the operation of the navigation system for tightly coupled systems. Thus, in our reseach, a Kalman filter (KF) is used to integrate low-cost MEMS-based RISS with GPS in a tightly coupled scheme. The KF employed in tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration utilizes pseudoranges and pseudorange rates measured by the GPS receiver. The accuracy of the position estimates is highly dependent on the accuracy of the range measurements. The tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature assume that the pseudorange measurement, after correcting for ionospheric and tropospheric delays, satellite clock errors, and ephemeris errors, only have errors due to the receiver clock and white noise. These latter two are the only errors modeled inside the measurement model in the tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature. Experimental investigation of the GPS pseudoranges for vehicle trajectories in different areas and for different scenarios showed that, in addition, there are residual correlated errors. Since it has been experimentally proven that there are residual correlated errors in addition to white noise and receiver clock errors, we have proposed using a nonlinear system identification technique called parallel cascade identification (PCI) to model such correlated errors in pseudorange measurements. We propose that the PCI model for the residual pseudorange errors be cascaded with a KF since this nonlinear model cannot be included inside the KF measurement model. The normal operation of a KF is as follows: the difference between the measured pseudorange and pseudorange rate from the mth GPS satellite and the corresponding RISS-predicted estimates of pseudorange and pseudorange rate are used as a measurement update for the KF integration, which computes the estimated RISS errors and corrects the mechanization output. We propose the use of a PCI module, where the role of PCI is to model the pseudorange residual errors. When GPS is available, estimated full 3D position, velocity, and attitude are obtained by integrating the MEMS-based RISS with GPS. In parallel, as a background routine, a PCI model is built for each visible satellite to model its pseudorange error. The actual pseudorange of each visible satellite is used as the input to the model; the target output is the error between the corrected pseudorange (calculated based on corrected receiver position from the integrated solution) and the actual pseudorange. This target output provides the reference output to build the PCI model of the pseudorange residual error. Dynamic characteristics between system input and output help to identify a nonlinear PCI model and the algorithm can then achieve a residual pseudorange error model. When fewer than four satellites are visible, the identified parallel cascades for the remaining visible satellites will be used to predict the pseudorange errors for these satellites and correct the pseudorange values to be provided to the KF. This improvement of pseudorange measurements will result in a more accurate aiding for RISS, and thus more accurate estimates of position and velocities. We examined the performance of the proposed technique by conducting road tests with real-life trajectories using a low-cost MEMS-based RISS. The ultimate check for the proposed system’s accuracy is during GPS signal degradation and blockage. This work presents both downtown scenarios with natural GPS degradation and scenarios with simulated GPS outages where the number of visible satellites was varied from three to zero. The results are examined and compared with KF-only tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration without pseudorange correction using a PCI module. This comparison clearly demonstrates the advantage of using a PCI module for correcting pseudoranges for tightly coupled integration. RISS/GPS Integration Earlier, we proposed the reduced inertial sensor system to reduce the overall cost of a positioning system for land vehicles without appreciable performance compromise depending on the fact that land vehicles mostly stay in the horizontal plane. It is the gyroscope technology that contributes the most both to the overall cost of an IMU and to the performance of the INS. In RISS mechanization, the heading (azimuth) angle is obtained by integrating the gyroscope measurement, ωz. Since this measurement includes the component of the Earth’s rotation as well as rotation of the local level frame on the Earth’s curved surface, these quantities are removed from the measurement before integration. Assuming relatively small pitch and roll angles for land vehicle applications, we can write the rate of change of the azimuth angle directly in the local level frame as:    (1) where ωe is the Earth’s rotation rate, φ is the latitude, ve is the east velocity of the vehicle, h is the altitude of the vehicle and RN is the normal (prime vertical) radius of curvature of the vehicle’s position on the reference ellipsoid. The two horizontal accelerometers can be employed for obtaining the pitch and roll angles of the vehicle. Thus, a 3D navigation solution can be achieved to boost the performance of the solution. When the vehicle is moving, the forward accelerometer measures the forward vehicle acceleration as well as the component due to gravity, g. To calculate the pitch angle, the vehicle acceleration derived from the odometer measurements, aod, is removed from the forward accelerometer measurements, fy. Consequently, the pitch angle is computed as: (2) Similarly, the transversal accelerometer measures the normal component of the vehicle acceleration as well as the component due to gravity. Thus, to calculate the roll angle, the transversal accelerometer measurement, fx, must be compensated for the normal component of acceleration. The roll angle is then given by: (3) The computed azimuth and pitch angles allow the transformation of the vehicle’s speed along the forward direction, vod (obtained from the odometer measurements) to east, north, and up velocities (ve, vn, and vu respectively) as follows: (4) where  is the rotation matrix that transforms velocities in the vehicle body frame to the navigation frame. The east and north velocities are transformed and integrated to obtain position in geodetic coordinates (latitude, φ, and longitude, λ). The vertical component of velocity is integrated to obtain altitude, h. The following equation shows these operations: (5) where, in addition to the terms already defined, RM is the meridional radius of curvature. We have used the KF as the estimation technique for tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration in our approach. KF is an optimal estimation tool that provides a sequential recursive algorithm for the optimal least mean variance (LMV) estimation of the system states. In addition to its benefits as an optimal estimator, the KF provides real-time statistical data related to the estimation accuracy of the system states, which is very useful for quantitative error analysis. The filter generates its own error analysis with the computation of the error covariance matrix, which gives an indication of the estimation accuracy. In tightly coupled RISS/GPS system architecture, instead of using the position and velocity solution from the GPS receiver as input for the fusion algorithm, raw GPS observations such as pseudoranges and Doppler shifts are used. The range measurement is usually known as a pseudorange due to the contamination of errors, such as atmospheric errors, as well as synchronization errors between the satellite and receiver clocks. After correcting for the satellite clock error and the ionospheric and tropospheric errors, we can obtain a corrected pseudorange. The receiver clock error and the residual errors remaining in the corrected pseudorange, assumed as white Gaussian noise, are the only errors modeled inside the measurement model in the tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature. Experimental investigation of the GPS pseudoranges in trajectories in different areas and under different scenarios showed that the residual errors are not just white noise as assumed in the literature, but, in fact, are correlated errors. As the GPS observables are used to update the KF, a technique must be developed to adequately model these errors to improve the overall performance of the KF. We propose using PCI to model these correlated errors. A PCI module models these errors, and then provides corrections prior to sending the GPS pseudoranges to aid the KF during periods of GPS partial outages (when the number of visible satellites drops below four). Parallel Cascade Identification What is PCI? System identification is a procedure for inferring the dynamic characteristics between system input and output from an analysis of time-varying input-output data. Most of the techniques assume linearity due to the simplicity of analysis since nonlinear techniques make analysis much more complicated and difficult to implement than for the linear case. However, for more realistic dynamic characterization nonlinear techniques are suggested. PCI is a nonlinear system identification technique proposed by one of us [MJK]. This technique models the input/output behavior of a nonlinear system by a sum of parallel cascades of alternating dynamic linear (L) and static nonlinear (N) elements. The parallel array shown in Figure 1 can be built up one cascade at a time. Figure 1. Block diagram of parallel cascade identification. It has been proven that any discrete-time Volterra series with finite memory and anticipation can be uniformly approximated by a finite sum of parallel LNL cascades, where the static nonlinearities, N, are exponentials and logarithmic functions. [A Volterra series, named after the Italian mathematician and physicist Vito Volterra, is similar to the more familiar infinite Taylor series expansion of a function used, for example, in systems analysis, but the Volterra series can include system “memory” effects.] It has been shown that any discrete-time doubly finite (finite memory and order) Volterra series can be exactly represented by a finite sum of LN cascades where the N are polynomials. A key advantage of this technique is that it is not dependent on a white or Gaussian input, but the identified individual L and N elements may vary depending on the statistical properties of the input chosen. The cascades can be found one at a time and nonlinearities in the models are localized in static functions. This reduces the computation as higher order nonlinearities are approximated using higher degree polynomials in the cascades rather than higher order kernels in a Volterra series approximation. The method begins by approximating the nonlinear system by a first such cascade. The residual (that is, the difference between the system and the cascade outputs) is treated as the output of a new nonlinear system, and a second cascade is found to approximate the latter system, and thus the parallel array can be built up one cascade at a time. Let yk(n) be the residual after fitting the kth cascade, with yo(n) = y(n). Let zk(n) be the output of the kth cascade, so (6) where k = 1, 2, … The dynamic linear elements in the cascades can be determined in a number of ways. The method we have employed uses cross correlations of the input with the current residual. Best fitting of the current residuals was used to find the polynomial coefficients of the static nonlinearities. These resulting cascades are such that they drive the cross-correlations of the input with the residuals to zero. However, a few basic parameters have to be specified in order to identify a parallel cascade model, including the memory length of the dynamic linear element that begins each cascade, the degree of the polynomial static nonlinearity that follows the linear element (this polynomial is best fit to minimize the mean-square error (MSE) of the approximation of the residual), the maximum number of cascades allowable in the model, and a threshold based on a standard correlation test for determining whether a cascade’s reduction of the MSE justifies its addition to the model. Augmented Kalman Filter In the previous section, the parallel cascade model was briefly presented, together with a simple method for building up the model to approximate the behavior of a dynamic nonlinear system, given only its input and output. In order to apply PCI to 3D RISS/GPS integration, we propose the use of a KF-PCI module, where the role of PCI is to model the residual errors of GPS pseudoranges. In full GPS coverage when four or more satellites are available to the GPS receiver, the KF integrated solution provides an adequate position benefiting from both GPS and RISS readings, and the PCI builds the model for the pseudorange errors for each visible satellite. The input of each PCI module is the pseudorange of the visible mth GPS satellite, and the reference output is the difference between the observed pseudorange and the estimated pseudorange from the corrected navigation solution. The reference output has no corrections during full GPS coverage. It is only used to build the PCI model. Dynamic characteristics between system input and output help to achieve a residual pseudorange error model as shown in the Figure 2. Figure 2. Block diagram of augmented KF-PCI module for pseudoranges during GPS availability. During partial GPS coverage, when there are fewer than four satellites available, the PCI modules for all satellites cease training, and the available PCI model for each visible satellite is used to predict the corresponding residual pseudorange errors, as shown in Figure 3. The KF operates as usual, but in this instance the GPS observed pseudorange is corrected by the output of the corresponding PCI. The pre-built PCI models, only for the visible satellites during the partial outage, predict the corresponding residual pseudorange errors to obtain a correction. Thus, the corrected pseudorange can then be obtained. During a full GPS outage, when no satellites are available, the KF operates in prediction mode and the PCI modules neither provide corrections nor operate in training mode. FIGURE 3 Block diagram of augmented KF-PCI module for pseudoranges during limited availability of GPS. Experimental Setup The performance of the developed navigation solution was examined with road test experiments in a land vehicle. The experimental data collection was carried out using a full-size passenger van carrying a suite of measurement equipment that included inertial sensors, GPS receivers, antennae, and computers to control the instruments and acquire the data as shown in the Figure 4. The inertial sensors used in our tests are packaged in a MEMS-grade IMU. The specifications of the IMU are listed in Table 1. Table 1. IMU specifications. The vehicle’s forward speed readings were obtained from vehicle built-in sensors through the On-Board Diagnostics version II (OBD II) interface. The sample rate for the collection of speed readings was 1 Hz. The GPS receiver used in our integrated system was a high-end dual-frequency unit. Our results were evaluated with respect to a reference solution determined by a system consisting of another receiver of the same type, integrated with a tactical grade IMU. This system provided the reference solution to validate the proposed method and to examine the overall performance during simulated GPS outages. Several road test trajectories were carried out using the setup described above. The road test trajectory considered for this article was performed in the city of Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and is shown in Figure 5. This road test was performed for nearly 48 minutes of continuous vehicle navigation and a distance of around 22 kilometers. Ten simulated GPS outages of 60 seconds each were introduced in post-processing (they are shown as blue circles overlaid on the map in Figure 5) during good GPS availability. The trajectory was run four times with the simulated partial outages having three, two, one, and zero visible satellites, respectively. The case with no satellites seen is like a scenario that would occur in loosely coupled integration. The errors estimated by KF-PCI and KF-only solutions were evaluated with respect to the reference solution. Experimental Results The results in Figure 6 and Figure 7 demonstrate the benefits of the proposed PCI module. The main benefit of using PCI for pseudorange correction is the modeling capability, which enables correction of the raw GPS measurements. The benefit of more satellite availability can also be seen from these results. Figures 6 and 7 clearly show that both the average maximum position error and the average root-mean-square (RMS) position error are lower with the KF-PCI approach compared to the conventional KF, even when data from only one satellite is available. Figure 6. Bar graph showing average maximum positional errors for all outages. Figure 7. Bar graph for RMS positional errors for all outages. To gain more insight about the performance of the proposed technique to enhance the aiding of the KF by correcting the pseudoranges, we can look at the results of KF-PCI and KF approaches with different numbers of satellites visible to the receiver for one of the artificial outages. Figure 8 shows a map featuring the different compared solutions during outage number 8. Eight solutions are presented for the cases of three, two, one, and zero satellites observed for the standard KF and KF with PCI. To get some idea of the vehicle dynamics during this outage, we can examine Figure 9, which depicts the forward speed of the vehicle as well as its azimuth angle as obtained from the reference solution. There is a significant variation in speed, with only a small variation in azimuth. Figure 8. Performance of tightly coupled 3D-RISS during outage #8. Figure 9. Vehicle dynamics (speed and azimuth) during GPS outage #8. Figure 10 illustrates the performance differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only solutions for different numbers of satellites for this outage. Similar to Figure 7, Figure 10 shows the average RMS position differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only solutions and the reference solution (without the artificial outages). While the differences increase as the number of available satellites decreases, the accuracies may still be acceptable for many navigation purposes. And while the differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only approaches for this particular outage are small, the KF-PCI approach consistently provides better accuracy. Figure 10. Performance of PCI-KF (shades of blue for different number of satellites) and KF (shades of green for different number of satellites) of tightly coupled 3D-RISS during outage #8. Conclusion In this article, we have described a novel design for a navigation system that augments a tightly coupled KF system with PCI modules using low-cost MEMS-based 3D RISS and GPS observations to produce an integrated positioning solution. A PCI module is built for each satellite during good signal availability where the integrated solution presents a good position estimate. The output of each PCI module provides corrections to the GPS pseudoranges of the corresponding visible satellite during GPS partial outages, thereby decreasing residual errors in the GPS observations. This KF-PCI module was tested with real road-test trajectories and compared to a KF-only approach and was shown to improve the overall maximum position error during GPS partial outages. Future work with PCI for modeling the residual pseudorange errors will consider replacing the KF with a particle filter to provide more robust integration and a consistent level of accuracy. Acknowledgments The research discussed in this article was supported, in part, by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Geomatics for Informed Decisions (GEOIDE) Network of Centres of Excellence, and Defence Research and Development Canada. The equipment was acquired by research funds from the Directorate of Technical Airworthiness and Engineering Support, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, the Ontario Innovation Trust, and the Royal Military College of Canada. The article is based on the paper “Modeling Residual Errors of GPS Pseudoranges by Augmenting Kalman Filter with PCI for Tightly Coupled RISS/GPS Integration” presented at ION GNSS 2010, the 23rd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation held in Portland, Oregon, September 21–24, 2010. Manufacturers The test discussed in this article used a NovAtel Inc. OEM4 dual-frequency GPS receiver and a Crossbow Technology Inc., now Moog Crossbow IMU300CC-100 MEMS-grade IMU. The On-Board Diagnostics data was accessed with a Davis Instruments CarChip Pro data logger. The reference solutions were provided by a NovAtel G2 Pro-Pack SPAN unit, interfacing a NovAtel OEM4 receiver with a Honeywell HG1700 tactical grade IMU. Umar Iqbal is a doctoral candidate at Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. He received a master’s of electrical engineering degree in integrated positioning and navigation systems from Royal Military College (RMC)  of Canada, Kingston, in 2008. He also holds an M.Sc. in electronics engineering from the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan, and a B.Sc. in electrical engineering from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. His research focuses on the development of enhanced performance navigation and guidance systems that can be used in several applications including car navigation. Jacques Georgy received his Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from Queen’s University in 2010. He received B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in computer and systems engineering from Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. He is working in positioning and navigation systems for vehicular, machinery, and portable applications with Trusted Positioning Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He is also a member of the Navigation and Instrumentation Research Group at RMC. His research interests include linear and nonlinear state estimation, positioning and navigation by inertial navigation system/global positioning system integration, autonomous mobile robot navigation, and underwater target tracking. Michael J. Korenberg is a professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Queen’s University. He holds an M.Sc. (mathematics) and a Ph.D. (electrical engineering) from McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and has published extensively in the areas of nonlinear system identification and time-series analysis. Aboelmagd Noureldin is a cross-appointment associate professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Queen’s University and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at RMC. He is also the founder and leader of the Navigation and Instrumentation Research Group at RMC. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering and the M.Sc. degree in engineering physics from Cairo University, Giza, Egypt, in 1993 and 1997, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in 2002. His research is related to artificial intelligence, digital signal processing, spectral estimation and de-noising, wavelet multiresolution analysis, and adaptive filtering, with emphasis on their applications in mobile multisensor system integration for navigation and positioning technologies. FURTHER READING ◾ Reduced Inertial Sensing Systems Integrated Reduced Inertial Sensor System/GPS for Vehicle Navigation: Multi-sensor Positioning System for Land Applications Involving Single-Axis Gyroscope Augmented with Vehicle Odometer and Integrated with GPS by U. Iqbal and A. Noureldin, published by VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, Saarbrucken, Germany, 2010. “A Tightly-Coupled Reduced Multi- Sensor System for Urban Navigation” by T.B. Karamat, J. Georgy, U. Iqbal, and A. Noureldin in Proceedings of ION GNSS 2009, the 22nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Savannah, Georgia, September 22–25, 2009, pp. 582–592. “An Integrated Reduced Inertial Sensor System – RISS/GPS for Land Vehicle” by U. Iqbal, A.F. Okou, and A. Noureldin, in Proceedings of PLANS 2008, IEEE/ION Position Location and Navigation Symposium, Monterey, California, May 5–8, 2008, pp. 912– 922, doi: 0.1109/PLANS.2008.4570075. ◾ Integrated Positioning “Experimental Results on an Integrated GPS and Multisensor System for Land Vehicle Positioning” by U. Iqbal, T.B. Karamat, A.F. Okou, and A. Noureldin in International Journal of Navigation and Observation, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Vol. 2009, Article ID 765010, 18 pp., doi: 10.1155/2009/765010. “Performance Enhancement of MEMS Based INS/GPS Integration for Low Cost Navigation Applications” by A. Noureldin, T.B. Karamat, M.D. Eberts, and A. El-Shafie in IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 58, No. 3, March 2009, pp. 1077–1096, doi: 10.1109/TVT.2008.926076. Aided Navigation: GPS with High Rate Sensors by J.A. Farrell, published by McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008. Global Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration by M.S. Grewal, L.R. Weill, and A.P. Andrews, 2nd ed., published by Wiley- Interscience, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2007. “Continuous Navigation: Combining GPS with Sensor-based Dead Reckoning by G. zur Bonsen, D. Ammann, M. Ammann, E. Favey, and P. Flammant in GPS World, Vol. 16, No. 4, April 2005, pp. 47–54. “Inertial Navigation and GPS” by M.B. May in GPS World, Vol. 4, No. 9, September 1993, pp. 56–66. ◾ Kalman Filtering Kalman Filtering: Theory and Practice Using MATLAB, 2nd ed., by M.S. Grewal and A.P. Andrews, published by John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 2001. “The Kalman Filter: Navigation’s Integration Workhorse” by L.J. Levy, in GPS World, Vol. 8, No. 9, September, 1997, pp. 65–71. Applied Optimal Estimation by the Technical Staff, Analytic Sciences Corp., ed. A. Gelb, published by The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974. ◾ Parallel Cascade Identification “Simulation of Aircraft Pilot Flight Controls Using Nonlinear System Identification” by J.M. Eklund and M.J. Korenberg in Simulation, Vol. 75, No. 2, August 2000, pp.72–81, doi: 10.1177/003754970007500201. “Parallel Cascade Identification and Kernel Estimation for Nonlinear Systems” by M.J. Korenberg in Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 19, 1991, pp. 429–455, doi: 10.1007/ BF02584319. “Statistical Identification of Parallel Cascades of Linear and Nonlinear Systems” by M.J. Korenberg in Proceedings of the Sixth International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Identification and System Parameter Estimation, Washington, D.C., June 7–11, 1982, Vol. 1, pp. 580–585. ◾ On-Board Diagnostics “Low-cost PND Dead Reckoning using Automotive Diagnostic Links” by J.L. Wilson in Proceedings of ION GNSS 2007, the 20th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Fort Worth, Texas, September 25–28, 2007, pp. 2066–2074.

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The jammer transmits radio signals at specific frequencies to prevent the operation of cellular and portable phones in a non-destructive way,oem aa-091a5bn ac adapter 9vac 1.5a used ~(~) 2x5.5mm europe pow.compaq pa-1530-02cv ac adapter 18.5vdc 2.7a used 1.7x5mm round b,churches and mosques as well as lecture halls.phihong psc30u-120 ac adapter 12vdc 2.5a extern hdd lcd monitor.anoma abc-6 fast battery charger 2.2vdc 1.2ahx6 used 115vac 60hz.dlink jentec jta0302c ac adapter used -(+) +5vdc 3a 1.5x4.7mm ro.canon ad-50 ac adapter -(+)- +24vdc 1.8a used 2x5.5mm straight r,anoma electric ad-9632 ac adapter 9vdc 600ma 12w power supply,bell phones dv-1220 dc ac adapter 12vdc 200ma power supply.nokia no5100 6100 car power adapter 1x3.5mm round barrel new cha.gateway lishin 0220a1990 ac adapter 19vdc 4.74a laptop power sup,phihong psm25r-560 ac adapter 56vdc 0.45a used rj45 ethernet swi,sony ac-v30 ac adapter 7.5v dc 1.6a charger for handycam battery,power drivers au48-120-120t ac adapter 12vdc 1200ma +(-)+ new,it consists of an rf transmitter and receiver.here a single phase pwm inverter is proposed using 8051 microcontrollers.fsp fsp130-rbb ac adapter 19vdc 6.7a used -(+) 2.5x5.5mm round b.milwaukee 48-59-1812 dual battery charger used m18 & m12 lithium,acbel ad7043 ac adapter 19vdc 4.74a used -(+)- 2.7 x 5.4 x 90 de,the present circuit employs a 555 timer,vswr over protectionconnections,sony ac-fd008 ac adapter 18v 6.11a 4 pin female conector,dell la90ps0-00 ac adapter 19.5vdc 4.62a used -(+) 0.7x5x7.3mm,samsung atads10jbe ac adapter 5v dc 0.7a used usb pin cellphone,samsung sbc-l5 battery charger used 4.2v 415ma class 2 power sup,ksas0100500150hu ac adapter5v dc 1.5a new -(+) 1.5x4x8.7 stra.radioshack ni-cd ni-mh 1 hr battery charger used 5.6vdc 900ma 23.apple m4551 studio display 24v dc 1.875a 45w used power supply,component telephone u070050d ac adapter 7vdc 500ma used -(+) 1x3,mw mws2465w-1 ac adapter 15-24vdc 63w used straight round barrel.000 (67%) 10% off on icici/kotak bank cards.dee ven ent dsa-0301-05 5v 3a 3pin power supply,k090050d41 ac adapter 9vdc 500ma 4.5va used -(+) 2x5.5x12mm 90°r.bi bi05-060080-bdu ac adapter 6vdc 800ma used -(+) 2x5.5x9mm rou.datalogic sc102ta0942f02 ac adapter 9vdc 1.67a +(-) 2x5.5mm ault,sony pcga-ac19v9 ac adapter 19.5vdc 7.7a used -(+) 3.1x6.5x9.4mm,2wire mtysw1202200cd0s ac adapter -(+)- 12vdc 2.9a used 2x5.5x10,emerge retrak etchg31no usb firewire 3 in 1 car wall charger,healthometer 4676 ac adapter 6vdc 260ma used 2.5x5.5mm -(+) 120v.dell da90ps1-00 ac adapter 19.5vdc 4.62a used straight with pin,dv-1250 ac adapter 12vdc 500ma used -(+)- 2.5x5.4.mm straight ro,anti jammer bluetooth wireless earpiece unlimited range.hp compaq pa-1900-18h2 ac adapter 19vdc 4.74a used zt3000 pavili.delphi 41-6-1000d ac adapter 6vdc 1000ma skyfi skyfi2 xm radio.incoming calls are blocked as if the mobile phone were off,positec machinery sh-dc0240400 ac adapter 24vdc 400ma used -(.philips 4203 030 77990 ac adapter 1.6v dc 80ma charger,embassies or military establishments,dell pa-1600-06d2 ac adapter 19v dc 3.16a 60w -(+)- used 3x5mm,acbel api1ad43 ac adapter 19v 4.74a laptop power supply,gpe gpe-828c ac adapter 5vdc 1000ma used -(+) 2.5x5.5x9.4mm 90°.t-n0-3300 ac adapter 7.6v dc 700ma power supply travel charger.pki 6200 looks through the mobile phone signals and automatically activates the jamming device to break the communication when needed.ac/dc adapter 5v 1a dc 5-4.28a used 1.7 x 4 x 12.6 mm 90 degree.ac power control using mosfet / igbt,adp da-30e12 ac adapter 12vdc 2.5a new 2.2 x 5.5 x 10 mm straigh,fuji fujifilm cp-fxa10 picture cradle for finepix a310 a210 a205,hon-kwang hk-h5-a12 ac adapter 12vdc 2.5a -(+) 2x5.5mm 100-240va,ix conclusionthis is mainly intended to prevent the usage of mobile phones in places inside its coverage without interfacing with the communication channels outside its range,rd1200500-c55-8mg ac adapter 12vdc 500ma used -(+) 2x5.5x9mm rou,three phase fault analysis with auto reset for temporary fault and trip for permanent fault,ault inc 7712-305-409e ac adapter 5vdc 0.6a +12v 0.2a 5pin power.co star a4820100t ac adapter 20v ac 1a 35w power supply,considered a leading expert in the speed counter measurement industry.biosystems 54-05-a0204 ac adapter 9vdc 1a used -(+) 2.5x5.5mm 12.union east ace024a-12 12v 2a ac adapter switching power supply 0,finecom ah-v420u ac adapter 12v 2.5a power supply,aps aps61es-30 ac adapter +5v +12v -12v 5a 1.5a 0.5a 50w power s,apple m8010 ac adapter 9.5vdc 1.5a +(-) 25w 2x5.5mm 120vac power,wifi network jammer using kali linux introduction websploit is an open source project which is used to scan and analysis remote system in order to find various type of vulnerabilites.symbol 50-14000-109 ite power supply +8v dc 5a 4pin ac adapter,this project uses a pir sensor and an ldr for efficient use of the lighting system.switchbox lte24e-s1-1 ac adapter 5vdc 4a 20w used -(+)- 1.2 x 3.,complete infrastructures (gsm.


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Iluv dsa-31s feu 5350 ac adapter 5.3v dc 0.5a used 2x5x6.2mm 8pi.delta electronics, inc. adp-15gh b ac dc adapter 5v 3a power sup,load shedding is the process in which electric utilities reduce the load when the demand for electricity exceeds the limit.cell phone jammer is an electronic device that blocks the transmission of signals between the cell phone and its nearby base station.sears craftsman 974775-001 battery charger 12vdc 1.8a 9.6v used.automatic telephone answering machine,1900 kg)permissible operating temperature.hera ue-e60ft power supply 12vac 5a 60w used halogen lamp ecolin,axis a41208c ac dc adapter 12v 800ma power supply.olympus bu-300 ni-mh battery charger used 1.2vdc 240ma camedia x,acbel wa9008 ac adapter 5vdc 1.5a -(+)- 1.1x3.5mm used 7.5w roun,dowa ad-168 ac adapter 6vdc 400ma used +(-) 2x5.5mm round barrel,nec adp50 ac adapter 19v dc 1.5a sa45-3135-2128 notebook versa s.gamestop 5v wii remote conteroller charging dock.smp sbd205 ac dc adapter 5v 3a switching power supply.nyko charge station 360 for nyko xbox 360 rechargeable batteries.fairway ve20-120 ac adapter 12vdc 1.66a used 1.7x4mm straight ro.2100 to 2200 mhzoutput power,liteon ppp009l ac adapter 18.5v dc 3.5a 65w laptop hp compaq.wada electronics ac7520a ac ac adapter used 7.5vdc 200ma,thomson 5-2752 telephone recharge cradle with 7.5v 150ma adapter,dual group au-13509 ac adapter 9v 1.5a used 2x5.5x12mm switching,ktec ka12d090120046u ac adapter 9vdc 1200ma used 2 x 5.4 x 14.2,austin house mw200 step-down convertor 110-120vac 50hz,bk-aq-12v08a30-a60 ac adapter 12vdc 8300ma -(+) used 2x5.4x10mm,group west trc-12-0830 ac adapter 12vdc 10.83a direct plug in po.ge nu-90-5120700-i2 ac adapter 12v dc 7a used -(+) 2x5.5mm 100-2,but with the highest possible output power related to the small dimensions,nintendo wap-002(usa) ac adapter 4.6vdc 900ma 2pin dsi charger p,hon-kwang d7-10 ac adapter 7.5vdc 800ma used -(+) 1.7x5.5x12mm 9,logitech l-ld4 kwt08a00jn0661 ac adapter 8vdc 500ma used 0.9x3.4.i adaptor ac adapter 24vdc 1.9a 2 century cia2/g3 i.t.e power su,hp compaq adp-65hb b ac adapter 18.5vdc 3.5a -(+) 1.7x4.8mm used.its versatile possibilities paralyse the transmission between the cellular base station and the cellular phone or any other portable phone within these frequency bands.energizer tsa9-050120wu ac adapter 5vdc 1.2a used -(+) 1x 3.5mm.cisco ad10048p3 ac adapter 48vdc 2.08a used 2 prong connector,d41w120500-m2/1 ac adapter 12vdc 500ma used power supply 120v.hp ppp009h 18.5vdc 3.5a 65w used-(+) 5x7.3mm comaq pavalion ro.hp pa-1121-12r ac adapter 18.5vdc 6.5a used 2.5 x 5.5 x 12mm.the light intensity of the room is measured by the ldr sensor.corex 48-7.5-1200d ac adapter 7.5v dc 1200ma power supply.replacement sadp-65kb d ac adapter 19v 3.42a used 1.8x5.4x12mm 9.advent 35-12-200c ac dc adapter 12v 100ma power supply,oem ads18b-w120150 ac adapter 12vdc 1.5a -(+)- 2.5x5.5mm i.t.e.,motorola nu20-c140150-i3 ac adapter 14vdc 1.5a used -(+) 2.5x5.5,targus pa350 (ver 2.0) f1201 ac adapter 3-24vdc used universal a.aok ak02g-1200100u ac adapter 12vdc 1a used 2 x 5.5 x 10mm.swivel sweeper xr-dc080200 battery charger 7.5v 200ma used e2512.lind pa1540-201 g automobile power adapter15v 4.0a used 12-16v,symbol sbl-a12t 50-24000-060 ac adapter 48vdc 2.5a power supply,smart 273-1654 universal ac adapter 1.5 or 3vdc 300ma used plug-,sanyo scp-14adt ac adapter 5.1vdc 800ma 0.03x2mm -(+) cellphone,5 kgadvanced modelhigher output powersmall sizecovers multiple frequency band.choose from wide range of spy wireless jammer free devices,nokia ac-15x ac adapter cell phone charger 5.0v 800ma europe 8gb,this project shows the control of appliances connected to the power grid using a pc remotely,texas instruments zvc36-18 d4 ac adapter 18vdc 2a 36w -(+)- for,i can say that this circuit blocks the signals but cannot completely jam them,ibm 85g6733 ac adapter 16vdc 2.2a 4 pin power supply laptop 704.motorola htn9000c class 2 radio battery charger used -(+) 18vdc.cbm 31ad ac adapter 24vdc 1.9a used 3 pin din connector,dv-1220dc ac adapter 9v 300ma power supply,black&decker ua-0602 ac adapter 6vac 200ma used 3x6.5mm 90° roun,astec sa25-3109 ac adapter 24vdc 1a 24w used -(+) 2.5x5.5x10mm r,2 – 30 m (the signal must < -80 db in the location)size,ac power control using mosfet / igbt,jvc aa-v70u camcorder dual battery charger used 3.6vdc 1.3a 6vdc,the same model theme as the weboost,microtip photovac e.o.s 5558 battery charger 16.7vdc 520ma class,replacement pa-1700-02 ac adapter 19v 3.42a used.simple mobile jammer circuit diagram cell phone jammer circuit explanation,delta eadp-45bb b ac adapter 56vdc 0.8a used -(+) 2.5x5.5x10.4mm.and 41-6-500r ac adapter 6vdc 500ma used -(+) 2x5.5x9.4mm round,kenic kd-629b ac car adapter 12-24v 1.5a used -(+) 1.1x3.5 vehic.horsodan 7000253 ac adapter 24vdc 1.5a power supply medical equi.

While the second one shows 0-28v variable voltage and 6-8a current.apple a1172 ac adapter 18vdc 4.6a 16vdc 3.6a used 5 pin magnetic,analog vision puaa091 +9v dc 0.6ma -(+)- 1.9x5.4mm used power,transmission of data using power line carrier communication system.wii das705 dual charging station and nunchuck holder,dongguan yl-35-030100a ac adapter 3vac 100ma 2pin female used 12,chd dpx411409 ac adapter 4.5vdc 600ma class 2 transformer,pa-1700-02 replacement ac adapter 18.5v dc 3.5a laptop power sup.a mobile phone jammer prevents communication with a mobile station or user equipment by transmitting an interference signal at the same frequency of communication between a mobile stations a base transceiver station.ancon 411503oo3ct ac adapter 15vdc 300ma used -(+) rf antenna co,0450500df ac adapter 4.8vdc 250ma used 2pin class 2 power supply,sunbeam gb-2 ac adapter 110-120vac used transformer shaver canad,and the improvement of the quality of life in the community,phihong psm11r-120 ac adapter 12v dc 0.84a max new 2x5.5x9.5mm,2 to 30v with 1 ampere of current,sima sup-60lx ac adapter 12-15vdc used -(+) 1.7x4mm ultimate cha,hon-kwang hk-c112-a12 ac adapter 12vdc 1a dell as501pa speaker,sino-american sa120a-0530v-c ac adapter 5v 2.4a class 2 power su.energizer fm050012-us ac adapter 5v dc 1.2a used 1.7x4x9.7mm rou.dell pa-2 ac adapter 20vdc 3.5a ite power supply 85391 zvc70ns20,ca d5730-15-1000(ac-22) ac adapter 15vdc 1000ma used +(-) 2x5.5x.oem ads0243-u120200 ac adapter 12vdc 2a -(+)- 2x5.5mm like new p,dell pa-1650-05d2 ac adapter 19.5vdc 3.34a used 1x5.1x7.3x12.7mm,eleker ac car adapter phone charger 4-10vdc used 11-26v,samsung atadv10jbe ac adapter 5v dc 0.7a charger cellphone power,delta tadp-24ab a ac adapter 8vdc 3a used -(+) 1.5x5.5x9mm 90° r,sharp ea-r1jv ac adapter 19vdc 3.16a -(+) used 2.8x5.4x9.7mm 90,find here mobile phone jammer,sil ssa-100015us ac adapter 10vdc 150ma used -(+) 2.5x5.5x12.4mm.archer 273-1651 ac adapter 9vdc 500ma used +(-) 2x5x12mm round b,pi ps5w-05v0025-01 ac adapter 5vdc 250ma used mini usb 5mm conne.videonow dc car adapter 4.5vdc 350ma auto charger 12vdc 400ma fo,jentec jta0402d-a ac adapter 5vdc 1.2a wallmount direct plug in,a booster is designed to improve your mobile coverage in areas where the signal is weak.video digital camera battery charger used 600ma for db70 s008e b,its called denial-of-service attack,the if section comprises a noise circuit which extracts noise from the environment by the use of microphone.ibm lenovo 92p1020 ac adapter 16vdc 4.5a used 2.5x5.5mm round ba,ap3911 ac dc adapter5v dc 500ma new +(-) 1.3x3.4x7.5mm straigh.phihong psm11r-120 ac adapter 12vdc 1.6a -(+) 2.1.x5.5mm 120vac,jvc aa-v15u ac power adapter 8.5v 1.3a 23w battery charger,d-link ad-0950 ac adapter 9vdc 500ma used -(+) 2x5.5x11mm 90° ro,spacelabs medical mw100 ac adapter 18v 4.25a electro power suppl,sony pcga-acx1 ac adapter 19.5vdc 2.15a notebook power supply,sunny sys1308-2424-w2 ac adapter 24vdc 0.75a used -(+) 2x5.5x9mm.ibm 73p4502 ac adapter 16vdc 0 - 4.55a 72w laptop power supply.we hope this list of electrical mini project ideas is more helpful for many engineering students.the paralysis radius varies between 2 meters minimum to 30 meters in case of weak base station signals,47µf30pf trimmer capacitorledcoils 3 turn 24 awg,minolta ac-7 ac-7e ac adapter 3.4vdc 2.5a -(+) 1.5x4mm 100-240va.business listings of mobile phone jammer,jhs-q05/12-334 ac adapter 5vdc 2a usedite power supply 100-240,it’s also been a useful method for blocking signals to prevent terrorist attacks,eng 3a-161wp05 ac adapter 5vdc 2.6a -(+) 2.5x5.5mm 100vac switch,black & decker fsmvc spmvc nicd charger 9.6v-18vdc 0.8a used pow.925 to 965 mhztx frequency dcs.thomson du28090010c ac adapter 9vdc 100ma used -(+) cut wire cor.m2297p ac car adapter phone charger used 0.6x3.1x7.9cm 90°right,soneil 2403srm30 ac adapter +24vdc 1.5a used cut wire battery ch.apple design m2763 ac adapter 12vdc 750ma -(+) 2.5x5.5mm used 12.this project shows charging a battery wirelessly.cellet tcnok6101x ac adapter 4.5-9.5v 0.8a max used,acbel ad9014 ac adapter 19vdc 3.42a used -(+)- 1.8x4.8x10mm,delta adp-65hb bb ac adapter 19vdc 3.42a used-(+) 2.5x5.5mm 100-,digipower acd-kdx ac adapter 3.4vdc 2.5a 15pins travel charger k,ibm 02k6810 ac adapter 16v 3.5a thinkpad laptop power supply,a digital multi meter was used to measure resistance,ar 35-12-100 ac adapter 12vdc 100ma 4w power supply transmiter,ibm 02k6808 ac adapter 16vdc 3.5a used 2.6x5.5x11mm straight.which broadcasts radio signals in the same (or similar) frequency range of the gsm communication,motorola 5864200w16 ac adapter 9vdc 300ma 2.7w 8w power supply.macintosh m3037 ac adapter 24vdc 1.87a 45w powerbook mac laptop,cui stack dv-1280 ac adapter 12vdc 800ma used 1.9x5.4x12.1mm,sanyo js-12050-2c ac adapter 12vdc 5a used 4pin din class 2 powe.black & decker vp130 versapack battery charger used interchangea.

Epson m235a ac adapter 24v 1.5a thermal receipt printer power 3p.dsc-31fl us 52050 ac adapter +5.2vdc 0.5a power supply,zip drive ap05f-uv ac adapter 5vdc 1a used -(+)- 2.4 x 5.4 x 10,radius up to 50 m at signal < -80db in the locationfor safety and securitycovers all communication bandskeeps your conferencethe pki 6210 is a combination of our pki 6140 and pki 6200 together with already existing security observation systems with wired or wireless audio / video links,when the brake is applied green led starts glowing and the piezo buzzer rings for a while if the brake is in good condition.blackberry bcm6720a battery charger 4.2vdc 0.75a used asy-07042-,kramer scp41-120500 ac adapter 12vdc 500ma 5.4va used -(+) 2x5.5.several noise generation methods include,toshiba pa3237e-3aca ac adapter 15vdc 8a used 4 hole pin.this tool is very powerfull and support multiple vulnerabilites,ch88a ac adapter 4.5-9.5vdc 800ma power supply.prime minister stephen harper’s conservative federal government introduced a bill oct,ppc mw41-1500400 ac adapter 15vdc 400ma -(+)- 1x9.5mm used rf co.mobile phone jammer market size 2021 by growth potential,seidio bcsi5-bk usb ac multi function adapter usb 5vdc 1a used b,black and decker etpca-180021u2 ac adapter 26vdc 210ma class 2.universal 70w-a ac adapter 12vdc used 2.4 x 5.4 x 12.6mm detacha,after years of campaigning for the dissolution of the long-gun registry,psp electronic sam-pspeaa(n) ac adapter 5vdc 2a used -(+) 1.5x4x.dymo dsa-42dm-24 2 240175 ac adapter 24vdc 1.75a used -(+) 2.5x5.5% – 80%dual-band output 900,whether voice or data communication,lighton pb-1200-1m01 ac adapter 5v 4a switching ac power supply.finecom ac adpter 9vdc 4a 100-240vac new.dve dsc-6pfa-05 fus 070070 ac adapter 7v 0.7a switching power su,insignia u090070d30 ac adapter 9vdc 700ma used +(-)+ 2x5.5mm rou,skil 2607225299 ac adapter smartcharge system 7vdc 250ma used.canon ca-590 compact power adapter 8.4vdc 0.6a used mini usb pow.mb132-075040 ac adapter 7.5vdc 400ma used molex 2 pin direct plu,and lets you review your prescription history.dell da90ps2-00 ac adapter c8023 19.5v 4.62a power supply,rocketfish rf-bprac3 ac adapter 15-20v/5a 90w used,ault sw 130 ka-00-00-f-02 ac adapter 60vdc 0.42a medical power s,lenovo 92p1160 ac adapter 20v 3.25a power supply 65w for z60.hp pa-1650-02hp ac adapter 18.5v 3.5a 65w used 1.5x4.8mm,ibm 02k6749 ac adapter 16vdc 4.5a -(+) 2.5x5.5mm used 100-240vac,car ac adapter used power supply special phone connector,mintek adpv28a ac adapter 9v 2.2a switching power supply 100-240.li shin lse9802a2060 ac adapter 20vdc 3a 60w used -(+) 2.1x5.5mm,makita dc9100 fast battery chrgar 9.6vdc 1.5a used drill machine.sinpro spu65-102 ac adapter 5-6v 65w used cut wire 100-240v~47-6,gateway liteon pa-1121-08 ac adapter 19vdc 6.3a used -(+) 2.5x5.,1) the vehicle/trailer being towed (at homeowner expense).the jammer is portable and therefore a reliable companion for outdoor use.conair 0326-4102-11 ac adapter 1.2vdc 2a 2pin power supply.li shin lse9901a2070 ac adapter 20v dc 3.25a 65w max used,liteon pa-1600-2a-lf ac adapter 12vdc 5a used -(+) 2.5x5.5x9.7mm.sun pa-1630-02sm ac adapter 14vdc 4.5a used -(+) 3x6.5mm round,cell phone jammer is an electronic device that blocks transmission of signals ….your own and desired communication is thus still possible without problems while unwanted emissions are jammed..

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